Organization theory, a large and multidisciplinary body of scholarly work that focuses on understanding organizations. Similarly, the resource theory argues that the family member with the most power or aggregate value of resources (e.g., money, property, prestige, strength) in society, traditionally the male, commands higher power in the marital and family relationships than other members, namely, women and children who are in subordinate and vulnerable positions (Blood and Wolfe 1960). Indeed, soft power enables a change of behaviour in others, without competition or conflict, by using persuasion and attraction. The second criticism made of Blood and Wolfe’s study concerned the constitution of the sample. It raises questions about the extent to which people’s perceptions of decision making are themselves constituted through an exercise of power rather than being, as Blood and Wolfe’s model implies, ”independent” of that power. According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. Although highly influential, Blood and Wolfe’s conclusions were questioned by many researchers concerned with marital power, on a combination of theoretical and methodological grounds. For example, decisions about family meals may be left to wives as part of their domestic responsibilities with the outcome that wives choose food they know their husbands prefer. In this, they report on a study in which over 900 wives were interviewed about the character of their marriage. argues that control of resources produces power, power is the basis of influence and that mutual influence leads to the formation of a psychological group. The three-process theory argues that psychological group formation produces influence, that influence is the basis of power and that power Marital Power/Resource Theory. On his view, power is an important, if Gnot exclusive, component of the social structure. Rather, what needs to be considered more is the distribution of material and non-material resources between the couple. Moreover, within this model, how are ”non decisions” to be treated – that is, decisions over which there appears to be little disagreement or debate? Burgess, E. & Locke, H. (1945) The Family: From Institution to Companionship. SOCIAL CONFLICT THEORY Introduction Social conflict theory is a Marxist-based social theory which argues that individuals and groups (social classes) within society have differing amounts of material and non-material resources (the wealthy vs. the poor) and that the more powerful groups use their power in order to exploit groups with less power. There are a number of elements to this in the context of marital power. Basic Hypothesis. This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 14:51. However, it is the 3 rd face of power which Marxism especially focuses on. Are either valid? One illustration of this alternative perspective on power can be found in the research literature on money management within families. In a way, resource dependence theory is a step back toward organizational process models. Polity Press, Cambridge. Free Press, Glencoe, IL. Bernard, J. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. One of the earliest – and most cited – studies examining the distribution of power within marriage was conducted by Robert Blood and Donald Wolfe in Husbands and Wives: The Dynamics of Married Living (1960). While the power resource theory is arguably the most successful theory in explaining the variations in development and efficiencies of social protection systems and institutions among developed democracies, there are criticisms that point out the lack of accountability for factors such as variations in “coverage, extension, and generosity among welfare states” in addition to not accounting for the importance of political mobilization based on social class. Delegation of these decisions, as well as a social order that makes some decisions so ”obvious” as to be non-contentious, can help legitimize the consequences of the decisions that are made. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Allan, G. & Crow, G. (2001) Families, Households, and Society. It argues that " working class power achieved through organisation by labor unions or left parties, produces more egalitarian distributional outcomes ". It matters little who decides on a particular issue if the decision that is reached sustains an already unequal status quo. 178–180. Locke seems to argue that the consequences will be property disputes and increasing concern for personal safety, although these consequences follow as much from the growth of population as from increasing resource scarcity brought about by the introduction of money into the state of nature. Nonetheless, Blood and Wolfe’s study was seminal in opening up debate about the ways in which power is exercised within marriage and helping family sociologists understand its inherent complexities. Questions about who has access to more leisure time, who has more money for personal expenditure, whose needs are prioritized within the family, become more central than decision making per se. Developed by D. Keltner and colleagues, approach/inhibition theory assumes that having power and using power alters psychological states of individuals. Moreover, many routine decisions can also be ”delegated” to wives because in practice the decisions they reach are liable to be ones which further, or at least do not harm, the interests of their husbands. Blood, R. & Wolfe, D. M. (1960) Husbands and Wives: The Dynamics of Married Living. As noted, Blood and Wolfe’s strategy was to ask about different decisions that were made by the couple – some frequent, some rare, some highly significant, others less so. Most of the work in organization theory has been written by scholars in the disciplines of sociology, business management, and economics. Power resource theory is a political theory which proposes the idea that the distribution of power between major classes is to some extent accountable for the successes and failure of various political ideologies. Strictly speaking, ‘property’ is a general term for therules that govern people’s access to and control of things like land,natural resources, the means of production, manufactured goods, andalso (on some accounts) texts, ideas, inventions, and otherintellectual products. The procurement of external resources is an important tenet of both the strategic and tactical management of any company. These factors are not determinants of success, but their absence results in underperformance. In theory, this means that the short-term damage caused by Trump’s trade negotiations could actually be a source of strength: By exposing the U.S. … Power is exercised by human agents and is also created by them, influences them, and limits them. For example, is the choice of food purchase as consequential as decisions about what apartment/house to buy or rent, or a spouse’s employment? Thus, routine ways of organizing domestic and familial life often hide the ways in which one party – typically husbands – benefits from this mode of organization at the expense of the other – typically wives. One of the assumptions of resource dependency theory is that uncertainty clouds an organization’s control of resources and makes its choice of dependence-lessening strategies imperative. There was, in other words, limited recognition that there might be competing understandings and experiences of a marriage – a ”his” and ”her” marriage, in Bernard’s (1973) famous terms. (See Young & Willmott 1973 for a particularly optimistic analysis.) Those with power are the ones who win out, irrespective of the process by which a decision is reached. What these studies repeatedly highlight is the extent to which wives and mothers in poorer households routinely sacrifice their own needs in order to provide better for their husbands and children. Stephen Lukes’ was a Marxist, and his 3 faces of power help explain how the ruling class maintain control of power in society. Thefirst issue is to distinguish between property and privateproperty. The Two-Factor theory argues that that there are two factors that motivate workers: hygiene and satisfiers. American Book, New York. More than most policy areas dealt with by political philosophers, thediscussion of property is beset with definitional difficulties. Indeed, as Lukes (2005) argues, the most powerful are those who can rely on the less powerful to make decisions which consistently operate in favor of the more powerful. In particular, ideas about historic shifts in the dominance of husbands/fathers within families have vied with feminist inspired views of the continuing significance of patriarchal control in both public and private spheres. Yet if husbands and wives were to have different understandings of decision making within their marriage, which of these is ”true”? How revealing of power are routine, everyday decisions? cial theories are discussed: control theory, resource theory, exosystem factor theory, and social isolation theory. More specifically, Blood and Wolfe were interested in finding out about who made decisions within the marriage, arguing that decision making was a clear indicator of the exercise of power and authority within any relationship. The third criticism, more radical than either of the above, calls into question the value of examining who it is who makes decisions as a means of measuring power. Conflict theory, first purported by Karl Marx, is a theory that society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources. Moreover, open discussions and consultation are highly valued within con temporary ideologies of coupledom and partnership. [5] Competing theories have also challenged PRT with alternative explanations for the varying levels of welfare development such as the importance of employers and cross-class alliances that exist in coordinated market societies. In the study, each respondent was asked questions about eight different decisions that couples and families typically made. Blumstein, P. & Schwartz, P.  (1983) American Couples: Money, Work, Sex. [1], Pioneered in the 1970s and 80s through the works of Walter Korpi, Gøsta Esping-Andersen, and John Stephens, the power resource theory is a method of approach utilized to examine the characteristics and varying levels of impacts of social policies as well as social inequalities on advanced industrialized nations. ... trial relations specialists are held to have lost significan t power to human resource and line manag-ers when dealing with issues in this area. The issue here was not its size or scope per se, but whether studies of marital power could ever be valid if only one party to the relationship was questioned. In the light of this, analyzing who makes decisions in marriage is not of itself necessarily revealing of power. They have focused most of their attention That is, conventional and normative agreements often disguise the distribution of benefits between actors. Clark, D. (1991) Marriage, Domestic Life, and Social Change. Power resource theory is a political theory which proposes the idea that the distribution of power between major classes is to some extent accountable for the successes and failure of various political ideologies. In the context of gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. Resource dependence theory (RDT) is the study of how the external resources of organizations affect the behavior of the organization. These included such decisions as: what job a husband should take; whether or not to buy life insurance; and how much money the family can afford to spend each week on food. Ralph Miliband said the political power in society was also held by those who control the economic base. So too, within contemporary constructions of “partnership,” divisions in domestic and paid labor tend to be viewed as negotiated familial and household organization rather than the operation of structural inequalities. Although decisions about balancing household income and expenditure are clearly theirs to make, this does not reflect the exercise of power in a conventional sense so much as the (delegated) responsibility of managing inadequate house hold budgets. Resource-based theory can be confusing because the term resources is used in many different ways wit… Lukes, S. (2005) Power: A Radical View. Control Theory Control theory is based on the concept that many family conflicts result from an individual’s need to obtain and maintain power and control within a relationship(s). Cherlin, A. While, again, this seems like a methodological issue, it is actually more fundamental. Furze, Savy, Brym, Lie "Sociology in Today's World" (Cengage Learning, 2008) pp. contends that the possession of strategic resources provides an organization with a golden opportunity to develop competitive advantages over its rivals (Figure 4.2 “Resource-Based Theory: The Basics”) (Barney, 1991). When the theory first appeared, it was a breakthrough in the study of social movements because it focused on variables that are sociological rather than psychological. (1973) The Future of Marriage. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. That suggests, she writes, that power is a s… Finally, Nye introduces smart power as the ‘balance of hard and soft power’ (Nye, 2005). According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. In the context of gender, conflict theory argues that gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power and privilege to the detriment of women. https://strategicmanagementinsight.com/topics/resource-based-view.html In other words, power is not a quality or a resource of people, RBV theory is a political theory in which any organization who has the resources could impact on the other organizations whom they need relevant resources. Those with power are the ones who win out, irrespective of the process by which a decision is reached. Three levels of criticism were of particular moment. Inequality (decreases)goes down and social welfare programs (increase)expand as working class power in a country grows (equality grows)relative to capitalist class power. Realism is a straightforward approach to international relations, stating that all nations are working to increase their own power, and those countries that manage to horde power most efficiently will thrive, as they can easily eclipse the achievements of less powerful nations. Arguing in favor of this way of conceptualizing power, Hanna Pitkin notes that power is related etymologically to the French word pouvoir and the Latin potere, both of which mean to be able. Questions about inequalities in marriage and the distribution of power within the relationship have long been a concern within sociology of family. (2004) The Deinstitutionalization of American   Journal of Marriage and Family 66: 848 61. Routledge, London. The theory further states that a nation’s foremost interest should be self-preservation and that continually gaining power should always be a social, economic, an… Therefore, men can be seen as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. If not, what is the value of asking about the less consequential decisions? Thus, as Edgell (1980) argued, joint, apparently democratic, participation within marital decision making can help legitimize the relational basis of the marriage, while still operating to secure a structurally embedded and (largely) taken for granted gender order which prioritizes men’s interests. Palgrave, Basingstoke. Overall though, the criticisms made of the study raised important questions about the nature of power in marriage and helped generate a far more sophisticated understanding of its exercise than had existed previously. Within the study of marriage, it is further complicated by dominant ideologies of personal commitment that imbue behavior with motives of love and altruism rather more than power and self-interest. The theory argues that these . Delphy, C. & Leonard, D. (1992) Familiar Exploitation: A New Analysis of Marriage in Contemporary Western Societies. First, it recognizes the importance of social order, or, in the case of marriage, gender order. and the ability to use them. The theory asserts that if people were made aware of the exclusion of certain matters, of interest to them, and the agenda they would react in order to protect their rights (Lukes, 1974: 23). For instance, Aphorism 13 of "The Gay Science" is entitled “The Theory of the Sense of Power.” Here Nietzsche argues that we exercise power over other people both by benefiting them and by hurting them. Edgell, S. (1980) Middle Class Couples. Lukes’ second criticism of the two dimensional of power argues that the theory still refers to the potential of conflict (Lukes, 1974: 23). No matter what the context, power remains a highly contested and complex concept (Lukes 2005). CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (, "Organized Labor's Check on Rising Economic Inequality in the U.S. States", "Explaining the welfare state: power resources vs. the Quality of Government", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Power_resource_theory&oldid=998679235, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Instead of focusing on decision making, it argues that the crucial question is who benefits most from the decisions that are made (Lukes 2005). Human Resource Management Theory and Practice 9780805838626 Allen & Unwin, London. When we hurt them we make them feel our power in a crude way—and also a dangerous way, since they may seek to revenge themselves. The growth of cohabitation and what Cherlin (2004) refers to as the ”deinstitutionalization of marriage” complicates further the interpretation of power within ”marriage like” relationships. Bantam, New York. Others, however, argued that marriage continued to be a structurally unequal relationship as a consequence of both the differential opportunities open to men and women, especially in the workplace, and the continuation of a highly gendered division of labor within the home (see, e.g., Delphy & Leonard 1992). Democratic peace theory argues that democracies rarely, if ever, go to war with one another. Therefore, the power resource theory “helps to account for the emergence and development of institutions” and the varying “empowered actors attempting to generate differential distributions of rewards.”[3] This is a result of the varying policy preferences of different social classes.[4]. Instead of focusing on decision making, it argues that the crucial question is who benefits most from the decisions that are made (Lukes 2005). Young, M. & Willmott, P. (1973) The Symmetrical Family. The standard theory is that power is the capacity for influence and that influence is based on the control of resources valued or desired by others. Gwynne, in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009 Modernization theory refers to a body of theory that became prominent in the 1950s and 1960s in relation to understanding issues of economic and social development and in creating policies that would assist economic and social transitions in poorer countries. By contrast, resource dependence theory is not concerned with sense-making, but with the selection of standard operating procedures that manages the firm's resource dependencies in the environment. This paper addresses the nature of power. The former perspective was captured well in Burgess’s (Burgess & Locke 1945) influential idea of a shift from ”marriage as an institution” to ”marriage as a relationship,” with some seeing the growth of ”companionate” marriage as a sure indicator that marriage would increasingly become a relationship of equality (Clark 1991). As will be discussed below, this is a more theoretically significant question than it might at first appear to be. Hygiene factors in this case refer to job security, salary, organizational policies and working conditions. Human Resource Management Theory and Practice 9780805838626. Companies typically adjust their business strategies to adapt to changes in power relationships with other companies. A type of social dilemma in which many individuals' over exploitation of a public resource depletes or degrades that common resource. Disagreements about their use are likely to beserious b… Resource mobilization theory is used in the study of social movements and argues that the success of social movements depends on resources (time, money, skills, etc.) Approach/inhibition theory. With hindsight, decision making approaches to the study of marital power are clearly subject to many questions and criticisms. These competitive advantages in turn can help the organization enjoy strong profits, especially over time. The first concerned the issues about which the respondents had been questioned. However, there have always been problems with this theory and new ones have appeared. The democratic peace theory purports that a spread of democracy will result in greater international peace and that democratic political institutions make it so that governments are blocked from initiating war wi… Inequality decreases and social welfare increases as the working class gains power through Organizational and Political resources. He argues that soft power is as important as hard power, and even more so in international politics. As uncertainty and dependencies increase, the need for links to other organizations also … Implicit within Blood and Wolfe’s methodology was the notion that decision making was an objective feature of marriage which would be reported on similarly by either husbands or wives. If these arguments are accepted, then it becomes questionable whether decision making can be used to reflect marital power in any simple fashion. As a result of their findings, Blood and Wolfe concluded that decision making, and thus power, within marriage was based on the level of social and economic resource that each spouse brought to the marriage. And how is the researcher to decide between competing accounts? William Morrow, New York. 162 Introduction to International Relations Introduction The focus of social constructivism (in shorthand: constructivism) is on human awareness or consciousness and its place in world affairs. Power is an inescapable feature of human social life and structure. It argues that "working class power achieved through organisation by labor unions or left parties, produces more egalitarian distributional outcomes". A key question raised by the study was whether each of these decisions was equally indicative of the exercise of power within the marriage. Generally speaking, democratic governments focus mostly on maintaining internal stability, ensuring that their respective populations have all of their social, political and economic needs properly satisfied. And if not, how should it be weighted, and who should decide on this? Full Text. Seemingly simple, these criticisms of themselves raise important questions about what power is. Thus, the greater the differential in, for example, a spouse’s earnings, education, and status, the greater power that spouse would have to make decisions over different aspects of family life. Download. Classic articulations of the latter definition of power (as power-to) are offered by Thomas Hobbes power is a persons present meansto obtain some future apparent Good (Hobbes 1985 (1641), 150) and Hannah Arendt power is the human ability not just to act but to act in concert (1970, 44). R.N. theory which he called structuration or duality of structure. Southwest Airlines provides an illustration of resource-based theory in action. [2] The power resources approach attempts to account for the various approaches to social policy adopted by nations, predominately focusing on the role and strength of labor mobilization to gather a more encompassing explanation for the varying levels of development and efficiencies of social policies. Power changes those in the position of power and those who are targets of that power.
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